This type of machinery reduced both air pollution (through reduction of nitrous oxide N 2O emissions) and groundwater pollution (through reduction of leaching losses of nitrates) from agricultural fields. By understanding gas exchange in the soil-plant-atmosphere system, researchers from Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada in Agassiz were able to develop a manure spreader that injects the dairy manure into the soil between corn rows. In regions with a large number of dairy and poultry farms, such as the Lower Fraser Valley in British Columbia, farmers are faced with excessive amounts of manure that are often applied to cropped fields. Agriculture accounts for 85% of ammonia (NH 3) emissions in Canada (Bittman et al., 2017), in large part associated with the application of animal manure to fields. Forest practitioners need to consider soil physical properties, such as texture and water content, as part of their assessment of the need for costly rehabilitation measures. But not all soils are equally susceptible to compaction, nor will all soil types require mechanical loosening of the soil prior to tree replanting. For example, in forest operations, soils may be compacted on landings, where logs are stored and loaded onto trucks by heavy machinery. Understanding the impacts of land management on soil physical properties can help us develop alternative practices for managing soils in a variety of ecosystems (forest, agriculture, urban). Soil strength is influenced by soil texture and water content, and determines the susceptibility of a soil to slope failure and compaction. Soil thermal properties regulate soil temperature with depth and determine how quickly (or slowly) a soil warms up in the spring. Soil aeration and gas exchange govern CO 2 emissions from the soil and O 2 availability for plants. Many soil nutrients are transported in the soil as solutes in soil solution. Understanding soil water retention and soil water movement is crucial in determining water availability for plants and soil organisms, infiltration and drainage, runoff and erosion. Soil texture, structure and bulk density reflect how soil mineral and organic particles combine to form the soil matrix and pore spaces. Soil physics is the study of the solid, liquid and gaseous phases of soils, and their interactions.
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